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Hong's Collection of Effective Prescriptions, in Five Juan

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Hong's Collection of Effective Prescriptions, in Five Juan
The imperial court of the Song dynasty placed great importance on medicine. Even scholar-officials were engaged in compiling medical books. Hong Zun (1120−74), in his spare time after his working hours, sought and collected medical prescriptions and compiled this work, entitled Hong shi ji yan fang (Hong's collection of effective prescriptions). It contains 167 prescriptions, which were collected from his many years of research and which proved to be practical and effective. The work was engraved in the sixth year of the Qiandao reign (1170) and was printed on document paper dated 1180−81. The practice of printing texts on document paper, originally intended for official documents, was a unique feature in the history of Chinese printing. This printed book using official document paper probably is the earliest extant example; it is thus of great historical value, even though it was not widely circulated.
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Brief Records of the World

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Brief Records of the World
Ying huan zhi lue (Brief records of the world) by Xu Jiyu and Hai guo tu zhi (Illustrated introduction to countries over the seas) by Wei Yuan are the first two masterpieces of modern China on world history. They are great collected works on the geography of Asia produced during the mid-19th century. Xu Jiyu’s book was completed in the 28th year of the Daoguang reign (1848), in 10 juan and 200,000 characters. After its publication it became very popular and widely disseminated. The key feature is its 40 maps with textual explanations. At the beginning of the volume are two hemispheric maps of the globe. Also included are maps of the continents. Individual maps are provided for important countries on each continent, all configured according to Western maps. Presenting a total of 80 countries on five continents, the work introduces in great detail geographical locations, mountains and rivers, terrains and climates, local products and customs, historical developments, and other contemporary subjects. The book offered readers extensive knowledge on world history and geography. In addition, it affirms the ways of modern capitalism and gives details on democratic parliamentary systems, which later greatly influenced the Westernization Movement and the 100 Days Reform Movement of 1898 in China, thus serving as a prelude to the wider spread of modern ideas.
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An Illustrated Tibeto-Mongolian Materia Medica of Ayurveda of ʼJam-dpal-rdo-rje of Mongolia

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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An Illustrated Tibeto-Mongolian Materia Medica of Ayurveda of ʼJam-dpal-rdo-rje of Mongolia
Dri med śel phreṅ nas bśad paʼi sman gyi ʼkhruṅs dpe mdzes mtshar mig rgyan (An illustrated Tibeto-Mongolian materia medica of ayurveda of ʼJam-dpal-rdo-rje of Mongolia) is a Tibetan book of unbound loose-leaf pages in landscape format. It was written in the first half of the 19th century in Tibetan and Mongolian, with additional Chinese scripts, by ʼJam-dpal-rdo-rje (also known as Ye-śes-don-grub-bstan-paʼi-rgyal-mtshan). The work is primarily a Tibetan-Mongolian book in the Indic ayurveda tradition, with some Chinese references as well, and some captions in Chinese. The book contains drawings and explanations introducing materia medica. The illustrations depict plants, animals, vessels, human bodies, and so on, with some captions given in all three languages. The copy presented here was printed in 1911. The main text of this book ends at folio 93. It is followed on folio 95 by a dedicatory prayer.
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Plan of the Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Plan of the Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau
Shown here is the plan of the Jiangnan General Machinery Manufacturing Bureau located in Shanghai, with the title on the top, Jiangnan zhi zao zong ju ping mian tu (Plan of the Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau). The abbreviated names of the bureau were Jiangnan zhi zao ju (Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau) and Jiangnan zhi zao zong ju (Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau). It was also known as Shanghai ji qi ju (Shanghai Machinery Bureau). Established to produce military equipment during the Westernization movement of the Qing dynasty, the bureau was the most important Chinese military arsenal in the late Qing. It was a modern military establishment of the largest scale, established by the Westernization group in the Qing government. The arsenal was also one of the earliest modern manufacturing installations among the bureau’s factories. It was planned by Zeng Guofan (1811−72), the eminent vice president of the Board of War, and opened on September 20, 1865. The politician, diplomat, and general Li Hongzhang (1823−1901) later took charge of the arsenal. This was Li Hongzhang’s largest Westernization enterprise in Shanghai. The scale of the plan shown here was one-eighth of an inch to ten feet (3.17 millimeters to 3.05 meters). The plan was drawn by a member of the Lei family, eight generations of whom made records of architectural designs for the imperial family, especially of the Summer Palace.
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Illustrated Introduction to Countries over the Seas

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Illustrated Introduction to Countries over the Seas
Hai guo tu zhi (Illustrated introduction to countries over the seas) is a comprehensive and systematic history and geography of the world and the first great masterpiece of Chinese modern history. Its source was Si zhou zhi (Encyclopedia of four continents), written by Lin Zexu (1785−1850), a scholar official and prominent figure in the campaigns of the First Opium War (1839−42). The work was compiled after consulting historical records and gazetteers as well as materials published since the Ming, particularly relating to the islands and seacoast. The first edition was published in the 22nd year of the Daoguang reign (1842), in 50 juan and 570,000 characters. It was later expanded by Wei Yuan (1794−1857) into 100 juan and 880,000 characters. The entire work includes 75 maps, 57 pages of illustrations depicting crafts of the West, and seven drawings describing theories of earth and astronomy. Presented here is juan one, including the title page, preface by Wei Yuan, and the table of contents for 100 juan, with one of the prefaces giving the date of the seventh year of Tongzhi (1868). It became a great masterpiece on world history and geography with rich contents, fine style—and exquisite illustrations in the full work. It attained far-reaching influence in the country, broadening the Chinese people’s world view and contributing to their learning. To certain degree, it also provided an impetus to its neighboring countries, such as Japan, especially in the reforms of the Meiji era (1868−1912).
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Biography of Zou Rong

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Biography of Zou Rong
Zou Rong (1885−1905), whose original name was Zou Shaotao, was also called Guiwen and had the style name Weidan. He was a native of Baxian, Sichuan. He changed his name to Zou Rong while studying in Japan. In 1903 he published a little book entitled Ge ming jun (The revolutionary army), calling for the Chinese people to carry out revolution, overthrow the Manchu regime, and establish the Chinese republic. Zhang Taiyan (1868−1936), a Chinese philologist, philosopher, and also a revolutionary, wrote the preface. It was published in the Su bao (Jiangsu journal). For his offence against the Manchu court, Zhang Taiyan was imprisoned. Zou Rong gave himself up and joined him in prison, where he died at the age of 20. In 1906 Zhang Taiyan was freed and wrote a manuscript, entitled Zou Rong zhuan (Biography of Zou Rong), which was published in 1907 in Japan in the tenth issue of the journal Ge ming ping lun (Commentary on revolution). The complete text is presented here.
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Illustrated Explanations of the Human Body, in One Juan

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Illustrated Explanations of the Human Body, in One Juan
Ren ti tu shuo (Illustrated explanations of the human body) is a work on anatomy by Western authors. It is the continuation of Taixi ren shen shuo gai (Outline of Western theories on the human body), originally translated jointly by Deng Yuhan (Chinese name of the German Jesuit missionary Johann Schreck, also known as Joannes Terentius, 1576−1630) and Long Huamin (Chinese name of Nicola Longobardo, 1565−1655). It was continued and completed by Luo Yagu (Chinese name of Jacobus Rho, 1593−1638). The work presented here is a one-juan book, which includes prefaces, a table of contents, explanatory text, and illustrations. It surpasses the Taixi ren shen shuo gai in that it has very fine graphic illustrations. The later book’s content on the subject of physiology was expanded, while still following the theories of Hippocrates and Galen. The anatomical illustrations are very detailed. Parts added include introductions to internal organs, urogenital anatomy, and the embryo, none of which were discussed in the earlier work. The explanations of anatomical details are clearly presented.
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Calligraphic Rubbings of Jiangzhou

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Calligraphic Rubbings of Jiangzhou
Jiang tie (Calligraphic rubbings of Jiangzhou) is an anthology of calligraphic rubbings, in 20 juan. The rubbings were made by Pan Shidan, a Song official in Jiangzhou, thus the title carries the name of the location. Pan was active during the reigns of Huangyou and Jiayou (1049−63) of the Northern Song. This is the earliest example of an anthology of calligraphic rubbings by a private person. The compilation was based on Chunha ge tie (The Chunhuage calligraphic rubbings), the oldest imperial anthology of calligraphic rubbings, but with additions and deletions. This work is grouped within the Chunhuage calligraphic rubbings system. The original 20 juan were arranged in two sets of ten juan each. Out of the first ten juan, juan one contains works by ancient calligraphers; juan two−juan five are works of famous officials in past dynasties; juan six−juan seven contain the calligraphic works of Wang Xizhi (303−61); and juan eight−juan ten contain the works of Wang Xianzhi (344−86). Out of the second ten juan, juan one consists of calligraphy of the Song emperors; juan two has works of emperors in past dynasties; juan three−juan six, again, are works of Wang Xizhi; juan seven−juan eight are works of renowned officials in past dynasties; juan nine contains calligraphic works from the Tang dynasty; and juan ten contains the calligraphic works of the Tang and Song dynasties. This work was a copy from the public treasury, of which only four juan remain. The ink is strong and the rubbings were repaired and bound during the Song dynasty. The National Library of China owns juan three−juan four in the first set and juan one−juan two in the second set, in two volumes (one for each set). Presented here are juan one and juan two in the second set.
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The Stele of Buddha Niches at Yique

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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The Stele of Buddha Niches at Yique
Shown here are rubbings of the texts on the famous Yique fo kan bei (The stele of Yique Buddha niches), also known as the Stele of Three Niches or the Stele of Three Niches of Longmen. The tablet was erected in the 11th month of the 15th year of the Zhenguan reign (641) during the Tang dynasty, in the Binyang Cave of the Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan. The texts were composed by Cen Wenben (595−645) and written by famed calligrapher Chu Suiliang (596−658). The horizontal inscription in seal script on the top reads “the stele of the Yique Buddha niches.” Each page of this incomplete copy has 33 lines, each line 51 characters. It was originally erected by the order of Li Tai, Prince Wei (620−53), in honor of his late mother, Empress Changsun. Although referred to as a stele, the stone is actually a rock carving. These rubbings were made during the Ming dynasty. The book presented here, the best-surviving copy, belonged at one stage to Qingsen'ge, the library of He Liangjun (1506−73) before entering the collections of the National Library of China. The Longmen Grottoes were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2000.
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Essentials for Cold Damage Disorders and Prescriptions, in Two Juan

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Essentials for Cold Damage Disorders and Prescriptions, in Two Juan
Li Cheng, style name Yuji, a physician during the Southern Song dynasty, was a native of Gushu (in present-day Anhui Province). Although he served as a secretary in the cabinet, Li was mainly known for his medical knowledge. He rearranged the work of the Han dynasty physician Zhang Zhongjing (active 168−96), entitled Shang han za bing lun (Treatise on cold pathogens and miscellaneous diseases). Zhang’s work was later organized by Jin and Song dynasty physicians into two books, one of them with the title of Shang han lun (On cold damage). Li Cheng’s compilation differs in listing first the prescriptions, then the classified categories. He named his work Shang han yao zhi (Essentials for cold damage diseases and prescriptions).  Li Cheng’s other works were Shang han zhi fa cuo yao (Summaries of treatments of cold damage disorders) and Xiao er bao sheng fang (Prescriptions for infant care), but neither of them has survived. This work, Shang han yao zhi yao fang (Essentials for cold damage disorders and prescriptions), in two juan, was printed in the seventh year of Qiandao of the Southern Song (1171). Juan one contains prescriptions drawn from a Northern Song edition of Shang han lun, issued by the Bureau for Revision of Medical Classics, from which Li selected and recorded more than 100 prescriptions. Juan two contains the essentials for treating cold disorders, with 172 entries selected from the Shang han lun. Also included are ten entries of “do’s and don’ts.” The work is of great practical use, and with the simple text of the Northern Song edition, it provides a significant resource for the study of the development and dissemination of Shang han lun and of its revised editions. Just a year prior to the printing of this work, another great work, Hong shi ji yan fang (Hong's collection of effective prescriptions), was published and was in the private collection of Huang Pilie (1763−1825). This copy of Li Cheng’s work was owned by the bibliophile Pan Zongzhou (1867−1939) in his private library called Baolitang. In 1950 the descendants of Pan donated the book to the National Library of China.
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New Edition of Daoist Sun's Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready Reference

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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New Edition of Daoist Sun's Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready Reference
This work, Chong kan Sun zhen ren bei ji qian jin yao fang (New edition of Daoist Sun's invaluable prescriptions for ready reference), emphasizes that the life of a human being is as important and as precious as a thousand pieces of gold. Thus to save one's life with a prescription is to demonstrate one’s great virtue. That is why the title includes the words qian jin (invaluable, or 1,000 pieces of gold). This work covers a wide range of subjects, from treatment instructions to ways to maintain good health, and is an important classic in traditional Chinese medicine. It was compiled, by imperial order, by Lin Yi and others and woodblock printed in the third year of the Zhiping reign (1066). Today the original work no longer exists. This edition dates from the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It was first kept in the collection of Tieqintongjianlou (The Pavilion of Iron Qin and Bronze Sword), in Changshu, Suzhou, Jiangsu, one of the four largest private libraries at the end of the Qing dynasty. The original printed format is intact, making this copy very valuable.
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Arcane Medical Essentials from the Imperial Library

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Arcane Medical Essentials from the Imperial Library
The book Wai tai mi yao fang (Arcane medical essentials from the Imperial Library) records 69 medical classics published before the Tang dynasty (618–907) and contains 6,900 entries. Parts of original works that no longer exist thus are preserved in this compilation. It lists many diseases and methods of diagnosis, records methods of compounding medicines, and discusses acupuncture, bathing, medical exercises, artificial emergency aid, and other topics. Compiled by Wang Tao (670−755), the work represents an outstanding contribution to the preservation of traditional medical classics and summarizes the medical achievements of traditional Chinese medicine before the Tang dynasty. This encyclopedic medical work appeared after the publication of Sun zhen ren bei ji qian jin yao fang (Daoist Sun's invaluable prescriptions for ready reference), a general book of medicine by Sun Simiao (581−682).
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New Edition of Wang's Classic on Pulse, in Ten Juan

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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New Edition of Wang's Classic on Pulse, in Ten Juan
Wang Shuhe, the author of Xin kan Wang shi mai jing (New edition of Wang's classic on pulse), was an imperial physician during the Western Jin dynasty (265−316). Wang drew his material from a great number of ancient classics on pulse to compile this work. It is the earliest extant work focusing on diagnosis by pulse, and it played an important role in the history of Chinese medicine. After its completion, there were numerous later editions with varied contents. During the Northern Song, the court established the Bureau of Revision of Medical Classics. This work was based on an earlier copy that Lin Yi and other officials revised in the 11th century. They eliminated repetitions, supplemented omissions, and also made changes in the compilation. It is still in ten juan, with 97 entries. A fragment of the work, discovered in a Dunhuang cave where the classics were hidden, is now in the British Library. This copy is a Yuan edition, printed by Guangqin Shutang in Jianyang, Fujian, in the third year of the Tianli reign (1330), and is considered the earliest extant printed copy. It was held in the private collections of famous bibliophiles, including Huang Pilie (1763−1825).
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Prescriptions of the Bureau of the Management and Administration of Pharmacy, in Ten Juan

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Prescriptions of the Bureau of the Management and Administration of Pharmacy, in Ten Juan
Tai ping hui min he ji ju fang (Prescriptions of the Bureau of the Management and Administration of Pharmacy) is the earliest book of patent medicine in China and in the world. The work records prescriptions of patent medicines compiled by the official pharmacy of the Imperial Medical Bureau during the Northern Song dynasty (960−1127). It contains 788 prescriptions in 14 categories, and provides, under each prescription, details on the expected cure and components of the medicine. The work serves as a manual, making it easier for physicians and patients to choose, acquire, and compound the medicines. Of the early Chinese works on prescriptions, besides Zhang Zhongjing’s Shang han za bing lun (Treatise on cold pathogenic and miscellaneous diseases), this work has been the most useful and the most influential among physicians. Many of its prescriptions are regarded by modern traditional Chinese medicine as having the same curative effects. Among the extant editions, this one, printed at the workshop of Rixintang in Jianyang, is an early copy with complete content.
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Revised Zhenghe Edition of Classified and Practical Basic Materia Medica Based on Historical Classics

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Revised Zhenghe Edition of Classified and Practical Basic Materia Medica Based on Historical Classics
Chong xiu Zhenghe jing shi zheng lei bei yong ben cao (Revised Zhenghe edition of classified and practical basic materia medica based on historical classics) is an encyclopedic work on pharmacopeia by Song physician Tang Shenwei. Its origins range from Shennong ben cao jing (Shennong’s materia medica) of the Qin and Han dynasties to Zheng lei ben cao (Classified herbal medicine), also by Tang and published before this edition. The work lists 1,746 herbal medicines. It was widely known and recommended in medical circles for its rich contents and practical applications. This copy was based on Zhenghe ben cao (Classified and practical basic materia medica drawn from historical classics: Revised and enlarged during the Zhenghe Reign), printed and distributed by Zhang Cunhui of Pingyang, Shanxi, in 1249, around the time of Güyük Khan, known as Dingzong. It also incorporates elements from Kou Zongshi’s Ben cao yan yi (Augmented materia medica). The page design is very fine, with the text interspersed with illustrations, which are representative of woodblock engraving in the northern style. This copy was owned by numerous renowned book collectors, including Zhu Dashao, Xiang Dushou, and Qian Qianyi of the Ming dynasty, and Mao Jin, Ji Zhenyi, Xu Qianxue, Yuan Tingtao, Wang Shizhong, Jiang Guangyu, and others of the Qing dynasty, thus its provenance can easily be traced. It is of great value.
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Classified Materia Medica from Historical Classics for Emergency

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Classified Materia Medica from Historical Classics for Emergency
Jing shi zheng lei bei ji ben cao (Classified materia medica from historical classics for emergency), often abbreviated as Zheng lei ben cao, is an encyclopedic work on materia medica. The compiler, Song physician Tang Shenwei, systematically collected all 365 herbs recorded in Shennong ben cao jin (Shennong’s materia medica) of the Qin and Han. He also studied classics of the Liang and Tang, such as Ben cao jing ji zhu (Variorum of the classic of materia medica) by Tao Hongjing (452−536) and Xin xiu ben cao (Newly revised materia medica) by Su Jing (published circa 659). At the completion of his work, between the late 11th and early 12th centuries, Tang had collected 1,746 medical herbs. The contents of this work are extremely rich and of great practical use. The book was highly recommended by the physicians of the time and was widely known. Tang’s work provides a systematic summary of the greatest achievements in materia medica during earlier times. It received great attention during the Song dynasty. After revisions, it was reissued in 1108 and promulgated as an official pharmacopeia. At the beginning is a preface for the 1211 edition, written by Liu Jia, a military prefect of Tongchuan, in which he indicates that the work was first revised in Jiangxi, reprinted in Nanlong, and then verified in Dongzi. This copy is a reprint edition of the edition of 1185 (12th year of the Chunxi reign) printed by the Transport Division of Jiangxi Circuit. It also contains the 1185 print title. It was in the collection of Haiyuange, the private library of Yang Shaohe in Liaocheng, Shandong, in the mid-19th century, and there are several seal impressions, including that of Haiyuange and Yang Shaohe’s personal seals. It is now in the collection of National Library of China.
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Fragment from Major Alfred Dreyfus's Memoirs

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Fragment from Major Alfred Dreyfus's Memoirs
Alfred Dreyfus (1859−1935) was a French artillery officer of Jewish background who was wrongly accused and convicted of treason and espionage in 1894. As such, he became the main protagonist in one of the most famous political scandals of the beginning of the 20th century. In this voice recording of a fragment of his memoirs, made in 1912 at the Sorbonne by the Archives de la parole (Voice archives), Dreyfus recounts the events of July 20, 1906. Eight days after he was exonerated by the Cour de cassation (Court of Cassation) and readmitted into the army with a promotion to the rank of chef de bataillon (major), he was made a knight of the Legion of Honor, an accolade that was published in the Journal officiel. In this recording, Dreyfus expresses his gratitude for the support he received from Lieutenant-Colonel Piquard, who was exonerated as well. Dreyfus also emphasizes the political and social impact of his exoneration and calls for reforms. Archives de la parole was founded at the Sorbonne by Ferdinand Brunot, a linguist and professor of French-language history at the Paris Faculté des lettres (University of Liberal Arts) with the support of manufacturing magnate Émile Pathé in 1911. The cornerstone of the institute of phonetics envisioned by the Université de Paris, this archive of recordings contributes to the preservation of language history. Many famous, “anonymous,” and foreign interviewees participated in more than 300 recorded interviews conducted between 1911 and 1914. The archives also produced 300 recordings of dialects, regional languages, and traditional folk songs, all recorded on-site in the Ardennes, Berry, and Limousin regions of France during the same time period.
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Piece of the Charlemagne Chess Set: The Pawn

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Piece of the Charlemagne Chess Set: The Pawn
The famous chess set called the Jeu d'échec de Charlemagne (Charlemagne’s chess set) was once part of the treasury of the Basilica of Saint-Denis. It was made near Salerno, Italy, at the end of the 11th century. It was long thought to have belonged to Charlemagne, who was said to have received it as a gift from Caliph Harun al-Rashid. In fact, this cannot have been the case, because the game of chess was only introduced to the Western world by the Arabs two centuries after Charlemagne’s reign (762−814). The set was intended more as a symbol than to be used for play. Its dimensions are unusual. The knights are 12.3 centimeters, the pawns eight centimeters high. The bishop is represented as an archer ready to shoot an arrow. The game itself is an exemplary symbolic system, depicting each individual’s place in medieval society. The set became part of the collections of the National Library of France in 1793 as a result of confiscations during the French Revolution. It is now kept by the Money, Medals, and Antiques Division of the library. The set is incomplete. While it included 30 pieces in 1534, only 16 were left at the time of the French Revolution.
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Merovingian Bees

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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Merovingian Bees
The tomb of Childéric, king of the Salian Franks from 457 to 481 and the father of Clovis, was discovered by chance in 1653 by construction workers near the church of Saint-Brice in Tournai, in present-day Belgium. The treasure found was given to Archduke Leopold William of Habsburg (1614−62), governor of the southern Netherlands (at that time under Spanish rule). The archduke asked medical doctor and antique specialist Jean-Jacques Chifflet to write a study of the find, which was published in Antwerp in 1655 under the title Anastasis Childerici I (The resurrection of Childéric I). The treasure was then transferred to Vienna with the rest of the archduke’s collections. In 1665 it was presented to King Louis XIV of France by Emperor Leopold I as a diplomatic gift. The treasure still includes Byzantine coins, jewels from Childéric’s sword and scramasax (a large knife used in war and hunting), a Frankish ax blade, the fibula that would hold the paludamentum (dress cloak or cape worn by Roman military commanders), a crystal ball, and, shown here, two of the golden bees or cicadas with cloisonné garnet wings (garnet insets) that were used to decorate either the royal coat or the harness of the king’s horse. These Merovingian bees inspired Napoleon, who, in a departure from the fleur-de-lys used from the reign of Hugh Capet in the tenth century, adopted them as the symbol of the French Empire. The signet ring bearing the words CHILDIRICI REGIS and the engraved portrait of the long-haired king, which had been the key to identifying the treasure, were stolen from the Cabinet des Médailles in the National Library of France in 1831. The investigation of the theft was led by famous former criminal-turned-detective Eugène François Vidocq. However, the case was never solved and the missing items were never recovered.
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A Protester during the Riots of February 1848

July 31, 2014, 10:58 am
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A Protester during the Riots of February 1848
This daguerreotype portrait of a protester was made at the end of the riots of February 1848 in Paris. The unidentified photographer was most likely inexperienced in the technique, as the text on the flag, “République Liberté Egalité Fraternité 22, 23, 24 février” (Republic Liberty Equality Brotherhood, 22, 23, 24 February), is reversed. A professional photographer would have used the mirror system invented earlier to correct the image in the dark room. Beyond this misstep, however, the viewer can sense the photographer’s intense desire to immortalize the face of the insurgency through the features of this boy, who is reminiscent of the character of Gavroche created by Victor Hugo in his 1862 novel Les Misérables. The daguerreotype process was invented by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (1787–1851) and in use since 1839, although it was soon rivaled by an alternative process devised by the British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot. Daguerrotypes were used in the 1840s to record a few historical scenes, including the revolutions of 1848. The reign of King Louis-Philippe I was characterized by significant social unrest, especially in Paris, whose population had surpassed one million, thanks to the Industrial Revolution. The unrest was largely triggered by the authoritarianism of the dominant minister in the government, François Guizot. The abdication of Louis-Philippe in February 1848 was followed by establishment of the Second Republic, which was soon brought to an end by Napoleon III and the establishment of the Second Empire in 1852. The political unrest of this period reflected the degree to which the ideology of 1789 was still very much alive among the population, making Paris a revolutionary city. The Paris Commune of 1871 was yet another proof of this enduring revolutionary spirit.
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